19th+Century+Urban+Society


 * Benthamite: - a follower of Jeremy Bentham, who was a big believer in utilitarianism and law reforms, also animal rights.**


 * miasmatic theory** - The idea that bad air and rotting materials cause diseases. Chadwick believed this.


 * germ theory:** the idea that disease was caused by the spread of living organisms that could be controlled. Was developed by Louis Pasteur after who discovered that fermentation depended on the growth of living organisms. This in theory lead to cleaner operations on people that needed surgery as well as cleaner births because doctors can notice when something could possibly have germs on them. It was also discovered later that germs are all around us in the air not just in the stuff that we touch.


 * pasteurization:** - The act of heating and cooling liquids to prevent their spoiling. Modern method developed by Louis Pasteur.


 * labor aristocracy** - the top class within the working class which were leaders of the working class. They believed drunken-ness and acting promiscuous was immoral. Also referred to as "skilled skilled laborers"


 * illegitimacy explosion** - large numbers of children born out of wedlock meaning parents were not married when the child was conceived. largely had to do with the large influx of people coming into cities and community control was not present. previously in countries, a lot of people knew each other so when you accidentally got someone pregnant you had no other choice but to marry her. now, with cities being so dense and labyrinthine, when a male accidentally gets someone pregnant, he has no pressure to marry her. and can easily still live in the city without ever coming into contact with that person.

Freud's postulation that much of human behavior is motivated by unconscious emotional needs whose nature and origins are kept from conscious awareness by various mental devices
 * defense mechanism**:-


 * thermodynamics**- A branch of natural science designed by physicist Lord Kelvin in 1854 that is concerned with heat and its relation to energy and work.


 * organic chemistry:** - Chemistry of materials that contain Carbon. Usually relating to living things. New branch of chemistry developed during 2nd Industrial Revolution.


 * Michael Faraday**: - born in South London. Educated himself at the age of 14. Worked with books and read a lot about the sciences. He invented an electromagnetic induction. Throughout the rest of his life he made new findings with electricity.


 * Dmitri Mendeleev**: - Russian. Invented the Periodic Table. Major contributor to modern chemistry.

Auguste Compte's discipline of sociology which postulated that each branch of our knowledge passes successively through three different theoretical conditions; the Theological, or fictitious; the Metaphysical, or abstract; and the Scientific, or positive
 * positivist method**-


 * Social Darwinism:**- an ideology of society that seeks to apply biological concepts of Darwinism or of evolutionary theory to sociology and politics.


 * Realism-** treatment of forms, colors, space, etc., in such a manner as to emphasize their correspondence to actuality or to ordinary visual experience. Realist writers sought to write just the way life actually is and broke from the romantic ideas. It focused on taboo subjects such as violence and sex, and middle class critics hated how crude this literary movement was. Authors were determinists in that they believed human actions were caused by uncontrollable laws. Some examples are "Madame Bovary" by Gustave Flaubert, and "The Human Comedy" by Honore de Balzac.

developed by English surgeon Joseph Lister, idea that a chemical disinfectant applied to a wound dressing would destroy aerial bacteria
 * antiseptic principle**: -


 * separate spheres** - in reference to a middle class family, meant that the women were to stay at home and care for the family, while the men were to be out in the world making the family fortune and providing for them.


 * evolution** - secular and separate from the church with scientific reasoning as to how people and animals came to be the way they are. This said that all species came from a same common ancestor and was developed greatly by Charles Darwin.


 * urbanization** - when there is a major population shift from the country side to form a society more concentrated in cities, this happened in this time period because as industrialization occurred, more people moved from the country to cities to have jobs in the factories that sprang up everywhere. This caused lots of overcrowding, poor sanitation, and tons of other good stuff like that.


 * Edwin Chadwick** - follower of Jeremy Bentham. collected reports from local poor law officials and pulbished his finding which was disease was related to filthy environment caused by lack of drainage, sewers and garbage collection. His reports became the basis of Great Britain's first public health law.


 * “sanitary idea”** - Created by Edwin Chadwick, stated that local authorities in the provisions, sewers, street cleaning and the environmental regulations of housing.


 * Joseph Lister**- Is the surgeon who introduced new principles of cleanliness which transformed surgical practice in the late 1800's. He applied chemical disinfectants to field wounds to kill the bacteria and prevent the spread of infection.


 * Charles Darwin, //On the Origin of Species -//** This was a work that was written by Charles Darwin who went on a 5 year trip to Latin America and the South Pacific in 1831 to collect animal species. In theory, he proved that populations will grow faster than their food supplies. He also stated that certain species will help others to survive while leaving others to die out. This proved that the variation for species to survive are naturally selected and gradually spread to the entire species through reproduction.


 * Hebert Spencer, Social Darwinism** - Social Darwinism- an ideology that said that the upper members of society need to help out the lower members and give them aid so they can get by.


 * Sigmund Freud** - An Austrian neurologist who became the founding father of psychoanalysis, postulated the existence of libido, discovered transference, and proposed that dreams help preserve your sleep.


 * Albert Einstein**- German Physicist(The most influential physicist), moved to America to escape persecution from Nazi's. Worked on Manhattan Project. Developed the Theory of Relativity.


 * Theory of Relativity- encompasses two theories of Albert Einstein, special relativity and general relativity. Changed physics and astronomy a lot, superseded the theory of mechanics created by Isaac Newton.**
 * Albert Einstein's theory that time and space are relative to the observer, and that only the speed of light remains constant.**


 * Honoré de Balzac** - (1799- 1850) French journalist and author, who wrote "The Human Comedy." It was based off "a vastly ambitious panorama of post revolutionary French life." Its based off of over 200 characters of all social classes.


 * Leo Tolstoy** - wrote the first great novel of "war and peace", and wrote "The death of Ivan Ilyich"