Age+of+Nationalism

**Red Shirts-**
is the name given to the volunteers who followed Giuseppe Garibaldi in southern Italy during his Mille expedition to southern Italy, but sometimes extended to other campaigns of his. The name derived from the colour of their shirts (complete uniforms were beyond the finances of the Italian patriots). in addition, they fought for a democratic republic.

**Zollverein -**
The //Zollverein,// was a coalition of German states formed to manage customs and economic policies within their territories. Established in 1818, the original union cemented economic ties between the various Prussian and Hohenzollern territories, and ensured economic contact between the non-contiguous holdings of the Hohenzollern family, which was also the ruling family of Prussia. It expanded between 1820 to 1866 to include most of the German states. Austria was excluded because of its highly protected industry; this economic exclusion exacerbated the Austro-Prussian rivalry for dominance in central Europe, particularly in the 1850s and 1860s. A belief behind the formation of Zollverein was that maybe if they were able to unite Germany economically, it may aid in political unity.

**Homestead Act:**
were several United States federal laws that gave an applicant ownership of land, typically called a "homestead", at little or no cost. In the United States, this originally consisted of grants totaling 160 acres (65 hectares, or one-fourth of a section) of unappropriated federal land within the boundaries of the public land states.

**modernization-**
The changes that enable a country to compete effectively with the leading countries at a given time. Countries behind those industrialized (Great Britain, France, etc) try to Westernize in order to keep up with competition. Russia and the Ottoman Empire are examples of nations that felt the push to modernize for the well being of their nations.

**zemstvo-**
was a form of local government that was instituted during the great liberal reforms performed in Imperial Russia by Alexander II of Russia. The idea of the zemstvo was elaborated by Nikolay Milyutin, and the first zemstvo laws were put into effect in 1864. After the October Revolution of 1917, the zemstvo system was shut down in most of Russia except where the Bolsheviks failed to take power.

This occurred when a massive crowd of workers and their families converged peacefully at the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg to present a petition to the tsar. The workers liked the tsar, but did not know he had fled the city. Suddenly troops opened fire, killing and wounding hundreds. The Bloody Sunday massacre turned ordinary workers against the tsar by proving that the Tsar did not have their best interests at heart nor cared. Bloody Sunday produced a wave of unrest in Russia which resulted in a new constitution.
 * Bloody Sunday-**

**October Manifesto-**
a document that served as a precursor to the Russian Empire's first constitution, which would be adopted the next year. The Manifesto was issued by Emperor Nicholas II, under the influence of Count Sergei Witte, on 30 October 1905 as a response to the Russian Revolution of 1905.The October Manifesto addressed the unrest application throughout the Russian Empire and pledged to grant basic civil liberties, including personal immunity; and freedom of assembly, association, press, religion, and speech. Other provisions include the allowance of a broad participation in the Duma (parliament), the introduction of universal male suffrage, as well as a decree that no law should come into force without the consent of the Duma

**Duma-**
The **Duma** were council assemblies which were created by the Tsar of Russia. Simply, it is a form of Russian governmental institution that was formed during the reign of the last Tsar, Nicholas II.(caused the collapse of the empire in 1917)

**Reichstag-**
This was a popularly elected lower house of parliament in the government of the German Empire. They supported legislation useful for further economic and legal unification of the country. Reichstag was a use of Global Politics by Bismark that helped promote nationalism by making the people believe that they have a say in their government. This didn't really have very much power, but it did a lot to make the people think they were involved. Pushed through many social reforms such as retirement plans, sickness insurance and pensions.

**Kulturkampf-**
refers to German policies in relation to secularity and the influence of the Roman Catholic Church, enacted from 1871 to 1878 by the Prime Minister of Prussia, Otto von Bismarck. The Kulturkampf did not extend to the other German states such as Bavaria. Jesuits, Franciscans, Dominicans and other orders were expelled in the culmination of twenty years of anti-Jesuit and antimonastic hysteria. Bismarck eventually abandoned attack on church and placed high tariffs on imports to gain support from Catholic Center Party and Protestant Junkers.

**Dreyfus Affair-**
was a political scandal that divided France from its inception in 1894 until its resolution in 1906. It involved the conviction for treason in November 1894 of Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a young French artillery officer of Alsatian Jewish descent. Sentenced to life imprisonment for allegedly having communicated French military secrets to the German Embassy in Paris, Dreyfus was sent to the penal colony at Devil's Island in French Guiana and placed in solitary confinement, where he was to spend almost five years. Result: Scapegoat were the jews. Got the French to rally around a common enemy. The army, anti-Semites, and most Catholics were against Dreyfus and civil libertarians and conservative republics supported him.

**People’s Budget -**
was a product of then British Prime Minister H. H. Asquith's Liberal government, introducing many unprecedented taxes on the wealthy and radical social welfare programmes to Britain's political life. A bill proposed after the Liberal Party came to power in England in 1906, it was designed to increase spending on social welfare services, but was initially vetoed in the House of Lords.

**Zionism-**
is a form of nationalism of Jews and Jewish culture that supports a Jewish nation state in the territory defined as the Land of Israel. Zionism supports Jews upholding their Jewish identity, opposes the assimilation of Jews into other societies and has advocated the return of Jews to Israel as a means for Jews to be a majority in their own nation, and to be liberated from antisemitic discrimination, exclusion, and persecution. Started by Theodor Herzl.

==== revisionism **-** used to refer to various ideas, principles and theories that are based on a significant revision of fundamental Marxist premises. An effort by moderate socialists to update Marxian doctrines to reflect the realities of the time.====

**revolution of 1905**-
was a wave of mass political and social unrest that spread through vast areas of the Russian Empire. Some of it was directed against the government, while some was undirected. It included worker strikes, peasant unrest, and military mutinies. It led to the establishment of limited constitutional monarchy, the State Duma of the Russian Empire, the multi-party system, and the Russian Constitution of 1906.

**Crimean War-**
This conflict arose out of a Russian dispute with France over who should protect certain Christian shrines in the Ottoman Empire. Because the fighting was concentrated in the Crimean peninsula on the Black Sea, Russia's transportation network of rivers and wagons failed to supply the distant Russian armies adequately. France and Great Britain, aided by Sardinia and the Ottoman Empire, completely crushed Russia. This military defeat marked a turning point in Russian history because it demonstrated that Russia had fallen behind the rapidly industrializing nations of Western Europe.

=== **Florence Nightingale-** british nurse who start modern nursing and starts the red cross. she and her followers were known as the "light brigade" because they brought light into the hospitals they went to. ===

**Second French Republic-**
The French Government (After Napoleon's) which had a new constitution and a strong president with a one-house legislature. It was lead by Louis Napoleon and it occurred for several reasons. He had the name of his famous uncle, the middle class feared the socialist challenge of workers and wanted a tough ruler and he had a positive program for France which had been spread in pamphlets before the election. First modern campaign.

**Second French Empire -**
Fearful that the radicals would win the 1852 election, Louis Napoleon iniated a coup d'etat and proclamed this new government. louis Napoleon was a leader who gave into the demands of the people a lot and ruled for a long time because of this.

__**King Victor Emmanuel**-__
IN Sardinia, granted a liberal constitution to the people in 1848 with elections and partlimentary control of taxes. his first minister was Cavour, and they had pretty much the same relationship as Cardinal Richelieu and Louis XIII. They were the ones who united Italy.


 * Count Cavour**.- He was the leading figure in Sardinian government from 1850-1861. He came from a noble family and made a fortune in business before entering politics. He wanted unity for only the northern and central states of Italy and to expand the Sardinian kingdom. He met with Napoleon III to form a secret alliance against Austria and the Pope to drive Austrian influence out of northern Italy. With the help of Garibaldi, Cavour eventually unified the Italian kingdom from the Sardinian Kingdom by 1870.


 * Giuseppe Garibaldi-** He was the son of a poor sailor and he personified the romantic, revolutionary nationalism and republicanism of Mazzini and 1848. He emerged with his Red Shirts in 1860 as an independent in Italian politics. He had a plan to "liberate" the kingdom of two Sicilies. He got the peasants of Sicily to rise up in rebellion against their landlords. He then turned his attack to liberate Rome but Cavour had different ideas for him.

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 * Otto von Bismarck-** Minister President of Prussia, unified the German Confederation into Germany (excluding Austria), then became 1st Chancellor of the German Empire. He was the minister of William I, and a master of politics. Won in wars against both France and Austria. Was forced to resign by William II. He had a very strong personality and a unbounded desire for power.=====

===**Prussian-Danish War, 1863**- Prussia briefly allies with Austria in the short war against Denmark for the provinces of Schleswig and Holstein. These two provinces technically belonged to Denmark but they were a part of the German Confederation. Prussia and Austria win, and Otto von Bismarck continues in his efforts to have Prussia in control of all of the northern area of the German Confederation.===


 * Austro-Prussian War, 1866-** Fought between Austria and Prussia for seven weeks, Prussia was generous to Austria with the peace terms, as a result Austria lost most of its power among the German confederation and Prussia gained dominance over the northern German states but Austria wouldn’t feel much resentment against Prussia

===**Franco-Prussian War, 1870-71- Started over the issue of who would control the territories of Alsace-Lorraine. According to Bismarch's plan, France had to be the one to initiate this war or the southern Germans would not support the north Germans. Prussia also had to keep Austria out of the whole affair, otherwise they would get stomped. Prussia ripped France apart and took Alsace-Lorraine and imposed heavy war reparations on France, causing a lot of bad feelings between the two countries.**===